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Glossary

3:1 Rule

When multiple microphones are being used to record a single source, In order to avoid phase cancellation, the microphones should be at least three times the distance apart as the distance to the sound source. For example, if a microphone is placed 1m from a singer, the next closest mic should be 3m from the first mic (or 4m from the singer).

A-Weighted

A noise measurement standard, which takes into account the human ear's sensitivity to certain frequencies.

A&R

"Artist and Repertoire" any person or department in a record company

responsible for finding and signing new artists.

ABACAB

A model of formulaic songwriting most widely used in pop music, it refers to a song structure of A-section, B-section, A-section, C-section, A-section, B-section (or more plainly: verse, chorus, verse, bridge, verse, chorus).

A/D converter

A circuit which converts analogue waveforms into a series of binary values. The more bits a converter has, the greater the resolution of the sampling process.

AES

Audio Engineering Society. The largest professional society for Audio engineers, the AES is frequently involved in the development of international standards and protocols for emerging audio technologies.

amplifier

A device that increases the level of an electrical signal.

analog

Circuitry which uses a continually-changing voltage of current to represent a signal. The origin of the term is that the electrical signal can be thought of as being analogous to the original signal.

ASCAP

American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers. ASCAP is one of two performing-rights royalties organizations in the United States.

attack

Describes how abruptly or softly a sound starts. For example, a snare drum has a very sharp attack, where as a bowed cello has a very soft or slow one. In compressors or noise gates, attack time represents how fast the processor can adjust it's gain.

attenuate

To lower or reduce a voltage or signal level.

aux

Short for auxiliary. A control on a mixing console used to route a portion of the channel signal to the effects or cue mix outputs. (see Aux Send)

aux return

Mixer inputs used to add effects to the mix.

bidirectional

A microphone pickup pattern with two opposing lobes of high sensitivity. Also called "figure-8".

bleed

(See "leakage")

Blumlein

A coincident stereo miking technique in which two bidirectional mics are placed close together with their pickups angled to 90 degrees of each other, forming a cloverleaf pattern. Named for the Bell Telephone and Telegraph Co. engineer who developed the technique.

BMI

Broadcast Music Inc. The other performing rights royalties organization in the United States. At this time all other countries in the world have only one such organization.

bouncing

The process of mixing two or more recorded tracks together and re-recording these onto another track.

boundary mic

A microphone that eliminates phase cancellation by measuring air pressure changes between a small condenser diaphragm and a large boundary plate. (See "PZM").

BPM

Beats Per Minute. Song tempos are usually listed in beats per minute using quarter notes as a reference, unless stated otherwise.

bumper

Term used to describe extra time added to a booking, in case the session goes over. This time is not charged for unless used.

Can-con

Canadian Content. Usually indicated on the packaging of recorded media with either a circular MAPL logo, or a red maple leaf. Under the rules of the CRTC, Canadian radio and television stations must air a certain percentage of "Canadian content", material created or performed by Canadians, or produced in Canada.

"cans"

Slang for "headphones".

capacitor microphone

A professional recording microphone that works by small changes in electrical capacitance. Capacitor microphones require phantom power to operate, usually 48v DC. (See "condenser microphone")

cardioid

Refers to the "heart-shaped" polar response (pickup pattern) of a unidirectional microphone.

channel

On a mixing console, a channel is a single strip of controls relating to a single audio input.

click-track

Metronome pulse which helps musicians keep time.

clipping

Severe distortion resulting from a signal attempting to exceed the maximum level which a piece of equipment can accommodate.

close-miking

A miking technique that places the mic (or mics) extremely close to a sound source. Usually within a few inches.

coincident pair

Any stereo miking method which places two microphone elements extremely close together to eliminate phase and timing differences.

compression

A reduction of dynamic range of a signal by use of a compressor.

Compression is frequently used to control the peaks of an unruly signal, or to raise the overall average sound level without introducing too much noise or distortion. This technique is commonly used in the production of television commercials to create the illusion that they are louder than the surrounding show. (in fact they are not, but compression techniques make it seem that way)

condenser

microphone

Any device that converts mechanical energy (sound) into electrical energy (sound-signal). Over the years hundreds of types have been developed for a myriad of specific uses. The three basic types are dynamic, condenser, and ribbon. Each of these comes in a variety of pick-up patterns as well; directional, omni-directional, cardioid, hypercardioid, boundary, and figure-eight.

console

Synonym for "mixer".

contact microphone

A microphone which senses the mechanical vibrations of an instrument rather than the sound (as would normally travel through air).

crossfade

The fading in of one sound while fading out another. At some point the sounds cross at an equal volume.

crosstalk

Also known as "bleed" (q.v.) this refers to any unwanted leakage of one audio signal into another. Within a console (or recorder) this will usually occur between adjacent tracks. Time code signals can also crosstalk into audio tracks.

DAW

Digital Audio Workstation. A computer-based recording/editing machine for manipulating sounds. These days, virtually all professional mastering of stereo recordings is performed on DAWs.

dB

Decibel. Units used to express the relative levels of two electrical voltages, powers or sounds.

decay

A progressive reduction in level of a sound or electrical signal. Most synthesisers have an adjustable decay by use of an internal ADSR envelope shaping circuit. In this context the decay phase starts as soon as the attack phase has reached it's maximum level. In the decay phase, the signal drops until it reaches the sustain level set by the user. The signal then remains at this level until the key is released, at which point the release phase is entered controlling the rate at which the sound disappears completely.

de-esser

Device for reducing the effect of sibilance in vocal signals.

desk

Slang for mixer, or console.

destructive

interference

An area where both direct and reflected sounds cancel each other out in a subtractive manner, creating a reduced sound pressure level at a given frequency.

DI

Direct Inject, in which a signal is plugged directly into an audio chain without the use of a microphone.

DI box

A device which matches the impedance of a source signal to that of a tape machine or mixer input.

digital delay

A digital effects processor which generates delay and echo effects.

digital reverb

A digital effects processor which simulates room reverberations of various types. (For example: concert hall, steel plate, room, spring etc.)

directional

microphone

Any device that converts mechanical energy (sound) into electrical energy (sound-signal). Over the years hundreds of types have been developed for a myriad of specific uses. The three basic types are dynamic, condenser, and ribbon. Each of these comes in a variety of pick-up patterns as well; directional, omni-directional, cardioid, hypercardioid, boundary, and figure-eight.

dissonant

Intervals are those in which the two tones have no mathematical relationship. (Opposite of "consonant"). Dissonant intervals are though to be harsh or somewhat disturbing, and need to be resolved.

distortion

Any measurable difference, other than in amplitude, between an input signal and an output signal.

dither

A system which adds low-level noise to a digitised audio signal in such a way that it extends the low-level resolution at the expense of a slight deterioration of noise performance.

double tracking

Recording the same performance twice onto two different tape tracks. When the two parts are played back the effect of two people playing or singing is created. Double tracking is often used to thicken up a weak vocal track, or to enrich the sound of an acoustic guitar.

dynamic microphone

This type of microphone works on the electric generator principle. Since audible sound is actually a series of micro-changes in air-pressure caused by compression waves, this energy can be used to move a flexible diaphragm. This diaphragm moves a coil inside a magnetic field, thus the sound energy is ultimately transduced into electrical energy which then travels down the microphone cable.

dynamic range

In any given device, dynamic range is the range in decibels between the highest level that the device can handle without clipping, and the level at which small signals get absorbed into the noise floor. The dynamic range of a commercial CD is 96 dB. The dynamic range of a symphony orchestra can be well over 120 dB.

dynamics

The method of describing changes in relative volume level in a piece of music.

engineer

A person in a recording studio who works "hands-on" with the equipment. Engineers work the recording equipment and also set up microphones and handle all equipment maintenance.

EQ

Abbreviation for equalization, an equalizer, or the act of equalizing a signal.

equalizer

A device for selectively cutting or boosting selected parts of the audio spectrum. "Equalisation" refers to the practice of adjusting the balances of varying bands of musical frequency to achieve a better tonal balance and blend.

exciter

An enhancer that synthesises and either augments, or creates new high-frequency harmonics.

expander

A device which is designed to decrease the level of low-level signals and increase the level of high-level ones, thereby increasing the dynamic range of the overall signal.

fader

A sliding potentiometer control on mixers and other processors.

figure-eight

describes the shape of the polar response (pickup pattern) of a microphone which is equally sensitive at the front and rear, but rejects sounds coming in from the sides.

flanging

A modulated delay effect which uses feedback to create a dramatic sweeping or "wooshing" sound.

gain

The amount by which a circuit amplifies a signal, usually measured in dB.

gate

1) An electrical signal generated whenever a key is depressed on an electronic keyboard. This is used to trigger envelope generators and other events that need to be synchronised to key actions.

2. In the film industry, the producer is typically the individual who "makes it happen", meaning, they are the one who will most likely find the financial backing as well as the technical talent (such as a director of photography) to "produce" the movie/TV show etc.

general MIDI

Addition to the basic MIDI spec to assure a maximum level of compatibility when playing back GM-format song files. The specification covers type and program, number of sounds, minimum levels of polyphony and multitimbrality, response to controller messages etc.

glass master

A master disc made of glass, containing music data copied from a master recording in a CD pressing facility, for use as a mould. Mass produced CDs are actually moulded in polymer resin on a glass master, unlike consumer CD-Rs into which data is literally burned with a laser.

graphic equalizer

Originally developed by Bell Laboratories, an equalizer is a device with which several narrow segments of the audio spectrum can be cut or boosted by individual faders. The device is so named because the fader positions provide a graphic reference of the EQ curve. These are commonly found on home-stereo equipment, due to their comparatively low cost.

head

Part of a tape machine or disk drive which records and/or reads data to and from a storage media.

headroom

The safety margin in dB between the highest peak signal being played through a piece of audio equipment, and the absolute maximum level the device can possibly handle.

hypercardioid

A microphone pickup pattern (polar pattern) tighter in scope than a supercardioid at the front of the mic (on-axis response), but having an area of increased sensitivity directly behind the mic.

indie

This term refers to an independent record company or artist who is not signed to a major label. Indies typically lack access to major distribution networks.

inverse-square

A mathematical principal which is used to describe the weakening of a sound signal as you get farther from the source.

kill fee

A fee levied by studios for last-minute cancellations.

lavalier mic

A small condenser microphone that can be easily hidden on a piece of clothing, so as not to be seen by a camera (or, at least to be as unobtrusive as possible).

leakage

1) Describes any condition where an unwanted sound is appearing with a wanted sound. In the case of "headphone leakage" sometimes a click-track from the singers headphones) can be heard in a soft vocal track.

2) Synonym for "bleed". When several musicians are recorded together, their instruments/voices tend to bleed into each other's mics. (For example, a sax might be heard in the guitar channel etc.)

limiter

A device which controls the gain of a signal to prevent it from ever exceeding a preset level, representing the maximum allowable "limit" of the signal strength.

line level

Most audio equipment operates at a standard signal level known as "line level". In practise there are actually several different line levels (naturally), but all are within a few volts of each other. A nominal signal level is approx. -10dBv for semi-pro consumer equipment and +4dBv for professional equipment.

mic-level

A low-level signal generated by a microphone. This signal must be amplified many times to raise it to line-level.

microphone

Any device that converts mechanical energy (sound) into electrical energy (sound-signal). Over the years hundreds of types have been developed for a myriad of specific uses. The three basic types are dynamic, condenser, and ribbon. Each of these comes in a variety of pick-up patterns as well; directional, omni-directional, cardioid, hypercardioid, boundary, and figure-eight.

MIDI

Musical Instrument Digital Interface. This is a digital programming protocol that allows various devices (usually synthesizers) to communicate with each other. By allowing synthesizers to be completely controlled by computer, mistakes in recordings can be edited out, and numerous digital effects can be applied.

mid-side

A coincident stereo miking setup that points a directional mic straight at the sound source and a bidirectional mic perpendicular to it. The two mic signals are converted to stereo through a simple mid-side decoder circuit; usually abbreviated "M/S". (The M/S decoder splits the signal into two channels, pans them hard left and right, then inverts the phase of the right-side signal).

mix

The blending together of sound sources in recorded music.

monitoring

The action of listening to a mix or a specific audio signal, or watching events/images on a computer monitor.

MTC

MIDI Time Code. A coded time-based signal used for synchronising various MIDI devices through their MIDI ports. Based on SMPTE time code.

multi-pattern mic

A microphone that uses electronic or mechanical means to provide numerous polar patterns from the same element.

multitrack

Any recording device that can discretely record or re-record different "parallel" parts to separate tracks. In a studio, the multi-track recorder will typically handle 8, 12, 16, or 24 tracks, and multiple units can be synchronized together. (Thus studios may claim to have 48, 72, or more)

multitracker

A single piece of equipment, which combines a small mixing, console with a dedicated multitrack tape recorder. When spelled with a capital M, the term is a registered trademark of Fostex. The term "Portastudio" is also widely used generically, however it is actually a trademark of the TEAC corporation (specifically TEAC's pro-audio division "TASCAM"). There does not appear to be a term, which generically describes a cassette-based multitracker other than these two terms.

near-coincident pair

A stereo miking technique that places two directional mics at an angle with some space between them. This stereo method captures both time and amplitude localisation cues.

near field

Also described as "close field", these are monitors designed to be used in close proximity to the listener. The advantage is that the listener hears more of the direct sound from the speakers and less of the reflected sound from reflections in the room.

noise floor

1. The strength of a given mic's self-noise, usually expressed in dB.

2. In the film industry, the producer is typically the individual who "makes it happen", meaning, they are the one who will most likely find the financial backing as well as the technical talent (such as a director of photography) to "produce" the movie/TV show etc.

off-axis

1. Any sound entering a directional mic at an angle where the mic has reduced sensitivity.

2. In the film industry, the producer is typically the individual who "makes it happen", meaning, they are the one who will most likely find the financial backing as well as the technical talent (such as a director of photography) to "produce" the movie/TV show etc.

out of phase

When positive and negative excursions of two sound waves or electrical signals move in opposite directions to cancel one another.

overdub

The addition of another part to a multitrack recording, or to replace one or more of the existing parts. (see "dubbing").

pan or panning

Term used to describe the position, or "placement", of a single sound within the stereo spectrum (soundstage).

patchbay

A system of panel mounted connectors used to bring inputs and outputs to a central location, from where they can be routed using patch cables, much like an old telephone switchboard. In some cases, the patchbay itself is also "normalled" (normalised).

phantom power

48v DC supply for capacitor microphones, transmitted along the signal cores of a balanced mic cable.

polar chart

A graphic representation illustrating a microphone's sensitivity to specific frequencies coming in from different directions.

preamp

An electrical device that boosts the level of a mic signal for recording or processing.

presence

A frequency band in the 2-5kHz region that conveys crispness and intelligibility in a sound.

producer

1. The producer is to a recording studio, what a movie-director is to a film set. They are usually the final say in how the finished product will sound. Record companies will often make a recording contract contingent on their choice of which producer is assigned to a particular project. They will always choose one with a proven track record, instead of leaving production decisions to the more limited experience of a band. The producer works closely with the engineers at all times, and has the greatest understanding of how the specific studio equipment operates, as well as the most education and/or experience in the field of recording theory and technology. Generally speaking, If you don't like the sound of a particular album (artistic content notwithstanding) it's probably the producer's fault!

2. In the film industry, the producer is typically the individual who "makes it happen", meaning, they are the one who will most likely find the financial backing as well as the technical talent (such as a director of photography) to "produce" the movie/TV show etc.

proximity effect

This is the name given to a condition that exists with most cardioid (pressure gradient) microphones. As a sound source gets closer to the mic (usually around two feet), the lower frequencies become exaggerated. Many mics come with a "low-pass filter" to combat this effect, but sometimes the solution is simply to move the mic farther away.

psychoacoustic

Refers to any psychoacoustic effect as perceived by the listener. Think of these as optical illusions for the ears. Some engineering techniques take advantage of the fact that we do not always perceive audio accurately, or exactly as what is presented. For example, a commonly used psychoacoustic effect would be the "thickening" of a vocal track by "double-tracking" (q.v.), and then panning the two tracks hard left and hard right. The listener in this case would perceive the sound more fully in the "centre-stage" of the stereo spectrum.

punch-in

The action of placing an already recorded track into record at the correct time during playback so that the existing material may be either extended or replaced.

punch-out

The action of switching a recording device out of record after completing a punch-in. With most multitrack machines, both punching in and out can be accomplished without ever stopping the machine. In many cases, these devices will allow the user to set predetermined "punch-points" exactly where the punch-in and out points will occur, thus automating the procedure and minimising the chances of an error.

PZM

Pressure Zone Microphone. Also referred to as a "boundary" microphone, PZM's are designed to reject out-of-phase sounds reflected from surfaces within the recording environment.

reverb

Acoustic ambience caused by multiple reflections in a confined space.

RF

Radio Frequency.

ribbon microphone

A microphone in which the transducer is a metal ribbon suspended in a magnetic field. When sound causes the ribbon to vibrate, a small electrical current is generated in the ribbon.

RMS

Root Mean Square. A method of specifying the behaviour of a piece of electrical equipment under continuous sine wave testing conditions.

room mic

A microphone placed to capture more ambient, reverberant sounds, rather than direct sound.

room tone

The natural "noise" of a room, set or location where dialog is recorded for the production shoot. Used by film or dialog editors as a "bed" to form a continuous tone through a particular scene. Not to be confused with ambience, which can be sound effects and/or reverberation, added when the dialog is mixed.

self-noise

The amount of noise a microphone produces, even when no sound is present. Usually heard as hiss.

shotgun mic

A highly directional microphone with a long tubular body (called a "rejection tube" or "interference tube") used by the production sound mixer on location or on the set of a film or video production.

sibilance

High frequency whistling or lisping sounds in vocal recordings, usually caused by poor mic technique or excessive EQ.

signal-to-noise ratio

Usually written as SNR, this figure expresses the ratio of the maximum signal level to the residual noise level in dB.

supercardioid

Similar to a "hypercardioid", with a slightly larger frontal pattern and smaller rear pattern.

timbre

The tonal "colour" of a sound. (Pronounced "Tamber")

transducer

Any device which transduces (converts) one form of energy into another. For example; a microphone transduces sound energy into electrical energy.

unbalanced

A two-wire electrical signal connection in which the inner (positive or "hot") conductor is usually surrounded by the "cold" (negative) conductor, in order to provide a shield against interference.

VU meter

A meter designed to interpret signal levels in roughly the same way as the human ear (responding more to average signal levels rather than to peak levels).

white noise

A random signal with an energy distribution that produces the same amount of noise power per Hz.

X-Y

A stereo miking technique that places the elements of two directional mics as close as possible to each other, angling the polar patterns outward at roughly 90-degrees. This method captures amplitude differences, but no delay cues.

XLR

Developed by Canon, this type of connector is commonly used to carry balanced audio signals, including the feeds from microphones. Originally listed as the Canon XLRM-3, (a 3-pin version) it has the added advantage of locking in place to prevent accidental pulling out.

zero crossing

The point at which a signal's waveform crosses from a positive amplitude to a negative on a graph (and vice versa).

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